Topics in School-based and School-Linked Substance Abuse Prevention: A Draft Glossary of Terms
This document presents a number of draft glossary terms that have been adapted or prepared from a variety of sources and published in draft form in the World Encyclopedia on School Health, Safety, Equity, Social and Sustainable Development, which acts as a shared work space for many organizations and individuals. The aim of this document is to collate the various draft terms and invite many others to comment on or even edit the summaries in the Wikipedia style web site. Our goal is to develop a series of common terms that can help in discussions around the world about school-based and school-linked substance abuse prevention.
These terms are based on a synthesis of better practices (International School Health, 2011) derived from a review of the statements, models, frameworks and planning models developed over decades in several sectors to promote health, safety, equity, social and sustainable development through schools. The synthesis has been used to develop an extensive, detailed, evidence-based and experience-tested outline for collecting research, resources and reports on broad health issues such as substance abuse or mental health as well as on interventions, theories and other aspects of school-based and school-linked human development.
The purpose of the glossary terms listed below is to provide a clearly stated, one or two paragraph definition that is free of jargon and easily understandable to a variety of audiences. Misconceptions or popular misuses of the term should be addressed. We provide a concise definition in one or two sentences, briefly describe the elements or aspects of the topic, refer to its common usage (and misconceptions/misuse) and how the concept is related to other aspects of school health promotion or social development. Where possible, we also try to provide a very brief summary of the quality of the evidence supporting its use or the experience in using the concept in real world practice.
Recipients of this document are invited to select the glossary terms relevant to their work or ongoing interest, click on the links provided to access the wiki-based draft and either comment on or edit the draft directly on the web site. (The Wetpaint social media web site we are using retains all previous versions of the summary.) Participants can either create a Wetpaint account (no cost, no spam) and then sign in to the web site or simply make their suggestions or edits anonymously.)
These terms are mostly in “rough draft” of “first draft” formats. Once the terms have been discussed online over several months through wiki-based editing and/or webinars/web meetings, they will be published as a “first edition” and the content will be locked, thereby preventing further edits but allowing for additional comments. Readers of this document may also want to review the list of operational definitions related to mental health developed for our World Encyclopedia which are part of an attempt to define key words (eg curriculum) that are used in different ways by many organizations and systems around the world without discussing the content as we do in these ``glossary terms``. A particularly important definition is reproduced below because there is often confusion and a lack of clarity in how the terms such as health-promoting schools, community schools, safe schools etc. are used in regard to their focus (single or multiple health/social issues, which ministries, agencies and professionals are delivering services or is it educators/schools alone? etc
The topics in this lengthy list have been gathered from several sources and previous activities. They have been presented in the global “call for contributors” issued by the International Discussion Group on School Substance Abuse Prevention in cooperation with several international organizations with a concern for school-based or school-linked substance abuse prevention.
We wish to thank several organizations and individuals who allowed us to reproduce or adapt their work in creating this initial set of glossary terms. In particular, we express our appreciation to…(to be added)
School Substance Abuse Prevention: A Glossary
Substance Abuse & Schools: An Overview
While a significant proportion of young people do not use any substance, the use of alcohol becomes normative in the high school years and cannabis or tobacco use may also become common. Widespread use of alcohol and other substances by young people is not surprising given their developmental stage (e.g. their need to experiment, take risks, and gain autonomy) and various mixed messages they receive from society. These universal factors are in many ways limited to the adolescent period and call for universal programming to help students navigate this period and to keep safe. Some young people clearly experience a greater accumulation of risk factors. These usually arise early in life (e.g. personality, family problems) and interact with early school adjustment pathways. It is these young people that appear at particular risk for early use of legal substances, harmful use of illicit substances and for problems that endure beyond adolescence. Targeted programming is necessary to shift the developmental trajectories of these higher risk children and youth. The need for schools to play a role on this issue becomes clearer when it is understood that student substance use can affect learning and academic performance. Substance abuse can also hamper a young person’s ability to master key developmental tasks (cognitive, emotional and social).
The influence of the school environment can be examined in four areas, the social environment of the school, the physical environment of the school, the impact of school processes and routines and the impact of school-related transitions on the child's development. There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that the social attachments formed during the school day, with peers, teachers, mentors, coaches and others as well as the overall ethos of the school can have a significant impact on the health of its students. Similarly, the physical attributes of school buildings, facilities and grounds can have an impact through the relative safety, security and supervision made possible by those physical elements. School organization, through practices such as middle and senior high schools, the use of teacher advisers and "home rooms" in large schools, and student discipline, recognition, reward and promotion/retention practices will have an impact as early as grade one. Finally, the critical transitions between pre-school and regular school, into high school, out of high school into further studies or work and even between schools after family moves can lead to experimentation or use of substances. In particular, the mix of age groups within large high schools can be a significant factor. Schools acting with the direction and support of government ministries, school boards and working collaboratively with other agencies and professionals as well as parents and young people, can make a substantial contribution to preventing substance abuse among youth. This may include but not be limited to the following: developing awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs and behavioural intentions among students, educators and parents; creating supportive social support programs that engage youth and involve parents, making changes to the physical environments, facilities and transportation routes to schools; helping to deliver programs that can assist in the identification, triage and referral of young people at risk of substance abuse; providing "on site" services to address substance use and related problems; providing on-going liaison with health care providers to meet the needs of youth receiving treatment for addictions; promoting staff wellness and more. These actions can be grouped and coordinated within comprehensive approaches, coordinated agency-school programs and whole school strategies which have been defined as "drug-free schools", "safe & caring schools" and "healthy schools". These frameworks, plans and programs (SMIP's) have been developed to promote positive youth development and "youth assets" as well as prevent substance abuse and are consistent with synthesis of experience-tested and research-based models to promote health, safety, equity, social and sustainable development through schools. The development of school substance abuse prevention programs has evolved over the past two decades. The first efforts were focused in instructional programs that have gone from didactic, medically driven strategies to ones that teach life skills and help students to understand themselves and the social influences affecting their choices. Other early attempts to use only single intervention programs such as "no tolerance" policies or brief counseling sessions have also evolved as we recognized the need for multiple, coordinated interventions at several levels in several systems. More recently, school health promotion research and practice has moved towards more ecological and systems-based approaches. These new understandings have led to greater attention to issues such as implementation, capacity-building, sustainability, adapting programs to fit local contexts and the complexity of systems change.
Key Concepts
Substance Use, Abuse and Addictions
Harm Reduction
Social & Emotional Learning
Behaviour Support
Assets/Strengths
Resilience
Universal, Targeted and Indicated Programs
A. Prevalence, Nature & Theories on Substance Abuse, Prevention/Promotion & Schools
Overview
A-1 Prevalence of Substance Use, Abuse and other Addictions among youth
Prevalence Data and Reports
Understanding the Nature of Substance Use, Abuse and Addictions
Impact of social influences (Parents, peers, media, social norms)
Impact of social determinants (gender, culture, economic status, etc)
Genetic factors (temperament, intelligence etc)
Influence of stages over the life course (e.g. puberty)
A-2 Specific Aspects of Substance Abuse, Strengths, Risks, Behaviours & Conditions
Overviews
Individual Protective Factors/Assets
Positive Life Outlook/Life Goals
Emotional Intelligence & Development
Brain Development
Mindfulness/Contemplative Practices-Skills
Probably the most widely quoted definition of mindfulness is from Jon Kabat-Zinn, who states that that…"Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and non judgmentally”. Mindfulness is attracting considerable attention from a number of sectors. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy is now a treatment for depression recommended by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence in the UK and in recent years there has been a proliferation of mindfulness-based applications for conditions as varied as stress in the workplace, eating disorders and intimate partner violence. Mindfulness can be presented as an entirely secular practice or as a more 'spiritual' one. At school, mindfulness is best presented as a secular discipline from which pupils benefit in many ways 1. The benefits of teaching mindfulness to adolescents were explored and confirmed in research between Tonbridge School and the Cambridge University Well-being Institue in 2007 (Burnett, 2007). Mindfulness dovetails well with the increased emphasis in schools on the social and emotional aspects of learning. However, a recent review (Greenberg & Harris, 2012) suggests that although there is great interest and potential promise for contemplative interventions, enthusiasm for promoting such practices outweighs the current evidence supporting them. Interventions that nurture mindfulness in children and youth may be a feasible and effective method of building resilience in universal populations and in the treatment of disorders in clinical populations. This review suggests that meditation and yoga may be associated with beneficial outcomes for children and youth, but the generally limited quality of research tempers the allowable conclusions. Well-designed experimental studies that are grounded in developmental theory and measure multiple indicators of change must fully test the efficacy of such interventions. Indeed, several organizations have already developed instructional or multi-intervention programs to promote mindfulness, stress reduction/management and related skills. 1. In this encyclopedia, we discuss the spiritual aspects under our Glossary Term entitled “Spirituality/Character/Values/Religious Beliefs” which places more emphasis on reflecting on our behaviours from a moral, spiritual or religious basis.
Self Knowledge/Self Concept
Self-Regulation/Control
Children’s ability to direct their attention and behavior to learning tasks provides a foundation for healthy social and academic development in early and later schooling. Although an explosion of research on this topic has occurred in recent years, the field has been hindered by a lack of conceptual clarity, as well as debate over underlying components and their significance in predicting school success. In addition, few measures tap these skills as children move into formal schooling. Self-regulation is a broad and multidimensional construct consisting of both behavioral and cognitive processes. Thus, researchers often study these processes from either a behavioral and temperament-based approach or a cognitive/neural systems approach. The temperament-based framework often focuses on effortful control, whereas the cognitive or neuroscience framework often focuses on executive functions. Although literatures on effortful control and executive functions come from different research traditions, the field needs to view them as complementary rather than incompatible. One way of looking at is a bidirectional model of cognition–emotion interaction in the development of self-regulation in which top-down executive control of thought and behavior develops in reciprocal and interactive relation to bottom-up influences of emotion and stress reactivity. Few studies include associations of emotions, or of individual differences in emotionality, to academic competence, and there are virtually no empirical data on when or why relations exist (or do not exist). The few studies of emotion and achievement have largely focused on anxiety, but there has been scant theoretical and empirical attention devoted to the treatment of other emotions. It is suggested that considering the moderated and indirect effects of students’ emotions on their academic functioning may provide an understanding of whether and under what circumstances emotions are related to achievement. Researchers can learn much about relations between emotions and achievement by considering the potential moderating role of effortful control, as well as considering the mediating roles that cognitive processes, motivational mechanisms, and classroom relationships play in linking emotions and achievement. (Adapted from the abstracts of several articles on self-regulation found in the June 2012 Issue of Child Development Perspectives)
Critical Thinking/Intelligence
Spirituality/Character/Values/Religious Beliefs
Social/Life Skills
Resilient ways of thinking/coping skills
Protective Conditions & Factors
Social Attachments with Parents
Social Attachments with Friends/Positive Peer Group
Social Attachments with other Trusted Adults
Individual Risk Factors
Vulnerability in Transitions between Levels of Schooling or Schools
Bereavement
Stress/Distress
Social Isolation/ Loneliness/Social Exclusion
Divorce/Family Breakdown
Homelessness/ Transient home life
Trauma from Violence, War, Disasters
Children Living with a Parent with an addiction
Risk Factors Related to Other Individual Health, Social and Genetic Problems
Mental Illnesses and Problems
Depression
Intellectual, Physical & Learning Disabilities
ADHD
FASD
Child Abuse/Neglect and Family Violence
Child Sexual Abuse
Pregnancy/Young Parenthood
Bullying/Aggression & Bystander Trauma/Violence
Homophobia/ Gender Ambiguity/ Sexual Orientation
Behaviour Disorders/ Delinquency/ Criminal Behaviour
Risk Conditions and Collective Factors
Economic, social or geographical disadvantage
Cultural Isolation/Discrimination/Challenges for immigrant students in Integrating (GT)
The concerns for schools in addressing the mental health needs of immigrant students are primarily derived from their limited English language skills and cultural differences, both of which may generate behaviors among peers and staff that are associated with prejudice and discrimination. Additional intervention concerns arise when students’ families are undocumented, are refugees from war zones, are living in poverty, or are experiencing inter-generational conflict at home. In developing appropriate policies and practices, schools must understand the diverse nature of immigrant subgroups. The heterogeneity arises from a myriad of factors. Families leave their country of origin for different reasons. The experiences of young people during migration vary considerably. Upon arriving in their new home, they are involved in complex transactions; other challenges arise during the settling in period. As they cope with diverse situations and events, the outcomes are sometimes positive, sometimes negative. Over time, most youngsters assimilate, albeit in a variety of ways; some, however, remain outside the mainstream of school life. School mental health programs for immigrant students should address the specific psychological and emotional needs of immigrant students, respond specifically to the various needs of such students described above and be integrated with school approaches/programs promoting acceptance of diverse cultures, preventing discrimination and encouraging retention of one’s cultural heritage. (Adapted from a brief on immigrant students prepared by the UCLA School Mental Health Project.)
Cultural Oppression/ Colonization
Stigma about substance abuse/ Help Seeking
Specific Harmful Behaviours or Conditions that can addressed in Programs
Drinking/Drug Use while driving/Friends drinking & driving/
Substance Use while deciding about sexual activity
Binge Drinking
Tobacco Use
Leaving drinks unattended in bars
Illicit or Illegal Drugs
Illegal use of alcohol (under-age drinking)
Use of alcohol by athletes
Normative beliefs about alcohol use
Normative beliefs about tobacco use
Normative beliefs about medications
A-3 Behaviour Theories that Explain SAP problems or approaches
Overview
Social-Emotional Intelligence
Social intelligence according to Edward Thorndike, is "the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations" [1]. It is equivalent to interpersonal intelligence, one of the types of intelligences identified in Howard Gardner's Theory of multiple intelligences, and closely related to Emotional intelligence which is also discussed in this glossary term. Some authors have restricted the definition to deal only with knowledge of social situations, which this encyclopedia has discussed separately under the term social learning/cognition. Social intelligence lies behind group interactions and behaviours. Research psychologists studying social cognition and social neuroscience have discovered many principles which human social intelligence operates. In early work on this topic, psychologists Nancy Cantor and John Kihlstrom outlined the kinds of concepts people use to make sense of their social relations (e.g., “What situation am I in and what kind of person is this who is talking to me?”), and the rules they use to draw inferences (“What did he mean by that?”) and plan actions (“What am I going to do about it?”). In 2005, business writer Karl Albrecht proposed a five-part model of social intelligence with the acronym "S.P.A.C.E." - 1) Situational Awareness, 2) Presence, 3) Authenticity, 4) Clarity, and 5) Empathy. Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups. Various models and definitions have been proposed of which the ability and trait EI models are the most widely accepted in the scientific literature. Ability EI is usually measured using maximum performance tests and has stronger relationships with traditional intelligence, whereas trait EI is usually measured using self-report questionnaires and has stronger relationships with personality..The EI model introduced by Daniel Goleman[2] focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines five main EI constructs, each comprised of specific competencies, including (1) Self-awareness – the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on others, (2) Self-regulation – involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances, (3) Social skill – managing relationships to move people in the desired direction, (4) Empathy - considering other people's feelings especially when making decisions and (5) Motivation - being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement. Goleman suggests that Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Like IQ, Social IQ is based on the "100 point" scale, in which 100 is the average score. Scores of 140 or above are considered to be very high. Social IQ has until recently been measured by techniques such as question and answer sessions. These sessions assess the person's pragmatic abilities however some tests have been developed to measure social intelligence. This test is often useful in diagnosing autism spectrum disorders, including autism and Asperger's Syndrome. Psychotherapy often involves helping people to modify their patterns of social intelligence, particularly those that cause them problems in their interpersonal relations. Some efforts are also underway to use computer-based interventions to help people develop their own social intelligence. Paul Ekman, for example, has created the MicroExpression Training Tool, to allow people to practice identifying the brief emotional expressions that flit across people’s faces. The website MindHabits.com offers a research-based software program with which people learn to modify their mind habits, focusing attention on positive social feedback and inhibiting attention to the social threats and rejections that can cause stress. Other interventions, for example to help autistic individuals develop social perception and interaction skills, are also in development. Several effective instructional programs for all children now include the development of social or emotional intelligence as part of their intended learning outcomes. For example, the PATHS program targets social and emotional competence to build protective factors and decrease behavioural problems. The Roots of Empathy program begins with a focus on the development of empathy and then expands outwards to include other aspects of social & emotional learning.
References:
1. Thorndike, E.L. (1920). Intelligence and its use. Harper's Magazine, 140, 227-235
2. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books
Also see our Glossary Terms for Social Learning/Cognition Theory and Social & Emotional Learning Programs/Models
Attachment Theory & Schools
Attachment theory, originating in the work of Rosie-May, is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory that provides a framework for understanding relationships between human beings. Attachment theorists have primarily focused on young children and abused children in their need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers, without which normal social and emotional development will not occur. However, recently, the concept has been used to examine the relationships and development of older children, teens and even adults (Kenny, 2011; Greenberg et al, 1983 ). Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. Parental responses to their children lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts and expectations in later relationships. Methods exist for measurement of attachment patterns in older infants and adults, although measurement in middle childhood is problematic. In addition to care-seeking by children, one may construe other interactions as including some components of attachment behaviour; these include peer relationships of all ages, romantic and sexual attraction, and responses to the care needs of infants or sick or elderly adults. Bowlby published the full theory in the trilogy Attachment and Loss, 1969–82. Attachment theory has become the dominant approach to understanding early social development and given rise to a great surge of empirical research into the formation of children's close relationships. Attachment-based therapy is a phrase intended to apply to interventions or approaches based on attachment theory. These range from individual therapeutic approaches to public health programs to interventions specifically designed for foster carers. The theory has been used in a deficit model to identify and understand how minority, troubled and abused students can be excluded from schools and thereby face greater risks to their health and continuing development (Tharinger & Wells, 2000; Mennen & O’Keefe, 2004; Moore et al, 1997). However, more recent applications of the theory have used social attachment in strength-based approaches. For example, school-based programs such as The Gatehouse Program in Australia are based on attachment theory. The assets model developed by the Search Institute lists several practical “supports” in its model that are derived from attachment theory. Attachment theory has also been used to explain how students become attached to teachers and peers; thereby having an impact on their success in school, career choices and mental health (Commardari, 2012; Wilkinson, 2009; Vignoli et al, 2003; Millings et al, 2012). It has also been used to explain how teacher and school administrator comfort and skills with forming attachments can affect academic, health and social outcomes (Morris-Rothschild & Brassard, 2006; Koohsar & Bonab, 2011).
Social Learning theory
Resilience
The word, resilience, stems from the Latin resilire (to recoil or leap back). Rubber bands and balls have resilience in this sense, and people are sometimes said to “bounce back” (metaphorically) after a difficult experience. But resilience has a broader meaning in science, generally referring to the phenomenon of positive adaptation in any kind of system following a serious challenge to the system’s function or viability. Resilience, therefore, is an inherent or fostered capacity or response mechanism, within all individuals, organizations and communities that is used to overcome significant challenges. Resilience is not manifested when no significant risk or challenge is encountered or when normal problems are overcome. We see examples and evidence of resilience when the normal interaction among the traits of the individual, the conditions or factors within the environments in which they live, learn and work and the processes that shape those interactions results in some individuals surviving or flourishing when the odds against success would suggest otherwise. A strengthened response mechanism (resilience) in the environment might be health services that focus on early recognition, referral and reintegration rather than just on treatment after the problem is acute. A strengthened response mechanism (increased resilience) in the interaction between the individual and the environment might be illustrated in the field of mental health. Stigma about mental health problems and illness often causes people to not seek help. Most school curricula now teach skills relating to accessing health services (this is standard health promotion strategy) but if the interaction with the social environment still discourages help-seeking, then we will not be effective. Therefore, anti-stigma campaigns are a way to increase resilience by influencing that interaction. A response mechanism within an individual is easier to identify and can include things such as temperament, intelligence and genetics as well as specific survival strategies or coping skills, positive ways of thinking routines to rebuild confidence or reduce stress etc. Teaching resilience as a character trait would likely be very challenging but schools can teach skills such as anger and stress management and how to access health services as well as teach all students to be more empathetic and supportive of others. A comprehensive approach to promoting resilience would include actions at all three levels; environment, interactions and individual. The absence of resilience can also be a way to understand the term. For example, most children will bounce back after the death of their pet. They have family, friends and other activities that sustain them. However, if they don't such assets, they become more vulnerable, even to such normal life challenges, so their response mechanisms or capacity for resilience is diminished. As well, their capacity for resilience might be weakened by other interactions with their environment ocurring at the same time, such as the divorce of their parents, a move to a new neighbourhood or a bully at school. Promoting resilience is not the same thing as promoting health by creating better conditions or healthier behaviours. Preventing problems or reducing risks is also not the same thing as promoting resilience. Resilience is more closely associated with the third and fourth of the broad goals of school health promotion (1-Promotion, 2-Prevention, 3-Assistance with Treatment and 4-Reintegration into schooling). Resilience theory and knowledge suggests we look more closely at the response mechanisms (within individuals, environments and interactions) and see if they can be modified to better support people experiencing significant challenges. Resilience theory joins other behavioural theories in guiding school-based programs to become more effective in helping students, staff and schools recover from significant challenges. In brief, resilience theory has helped such programs to be more:(1) positive in their approach, recognizing strengths and assets in students, processes and school/community conditions (2) focused on student connectedness to and engagement in schools as well as trusting relationships with adults, peers and parents (3)concerned with the development of self-efficacy and self-knowledge among students (4)attentive to the needs of students experiencing significant challenges (such as poverty, family stress/abuse etc) as well as students who may be more vulnerable to normal life challenges because of particular processes or times in their lives. Resilience offers us deep insights into the critical characteristics of the individual child, the environments in which they live, learn and play, and the interventions (policies, procedures, programs, practices) that shape their days and time in school. As well, resilience offers us a new lens to look at; developing and building strengths within individuals as they encounter risk rather than rushing to label and fix their problems; identifying students who may be more at risk in certain situations or in certain transitions and helping us to intervene earlier; looking at combinations of programs or interventions that can be more effective in certain situations or with certain groups of students In essence, fostering resilience is synonymous with strengthening the response mechanisms within individuals, within organizations such as schools, or within social and physical environments such as communities or cultures or within the interactions between the individual and their surrounding social/physical environments. This strengthening of individual, organizational or interactive response mechanisms is different than, although complementary, to promoting healthy conditions or behaviours as well as preventing or reducing selected risks
Stages of Change/ Trans-theoretical Model
Self-Determination Theory
Cognitive Behaviour Theory
Health Belief Model
Risk Reduction/ Harm Reduction
Planned Behaviour Theory
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) is a theory of the factors that determine an individual‘s decision to adopt or maintain a particular behaviour. An extension of Ajzen and Fishbein‘s (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action, the TPB postulates that the most immediate determinant of a person‘s behaviour is behavioural intention—that is, what the person intends or plans to do. According to the theory, intention is a function of three factors; one‘s attitudes toward the behaviours which reflect the person’s evaluation and salient beliefs about the likely outcomes of the behaviour; the perceived social pressure (subjective norms) to perform the particular behaviour which determined by normative beliefs about the behavior and the perceived amount of control the individual has over the behaviour or the relative ease or difficulty in performing the particular behaviour based on past experiences and the anticipation of obstacles. In general, the more positive these three components (attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control) are, the stronger the intention is to perform the given behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and, consequently the behaviour is more likely to appear. Other researchers (Armitage & Connor, 2012; Hardeman et al, 2002) have questioned the relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior because some studies report that due to circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, "perceived behavioral control." to the theory of reasoned action to cover non-completion of the intended behaviour.. The TPB (as well as its predecessor, the Theory of Reasoned Action) has also been used to understand student intentions and behaviours in regard to several behaviours (Webb & Sheeran, 2006) physical activity (Lazuras et al, 2011; Godin, Valois & Lepage, 1993), dieting (Conner et al., 1996), the use of condoms (Reineike et al, 2006; Boldero, Moore & Rosenthal, 2006), drinking and driving (Marcil et al., 2001; Parker et al., 1992), cigarette smoking (McMillan & Conner, 2003; Higgins & Conner, 2003),alcohol use ( Connor et al, 2006) and the use of marijuana and other illicit drugs (Conner & McMillan, 1999) Consequently, it is not surprising that many school curricula help students to develop “behavioural intentions” or “personal health action plans” about specific health/social issues or behaviours.
Primary References: Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, p. 179-211.
Problem Behaviour Theory
B Influence of the School Environment on substance use
Overview
B-1 Influence of the School Social Environment & Regular School Practices
B-2 Influence of the School Physical Environment
School size. Location
B-3 Influence of School Organization & Practices
Student Evaluation/Accreditation/Retention/Recognition Practices
Use of homerooms, teacher-student advisers in secondary schools
Age/groupings for middle & high schools
B-4 Influence of School-related Transitions
Transition Support Programs
Students and their families are regularly confronted with a variety of transitions – changing schools, changing grades, moving between pre-school and kindergarten and from primary school to secondary schools as well as from high school to college or work. Each transition may mean encountering a range of other daily hassles and major life demands. Many of these can interfere with productive school involvement. A comprehensive focus on transitions requires school-wide and classroom-based systems and programmatic approaches designed to (a) enhance successful transitions, (b) prevent transition problems, and (c) use transition periods to reduce alienation and increase positive attitudes toward school and learning. Examples of programs include school-wide and classroom specific activities for welcoming new arrivals (students, their families, staff) and rendering ongoing social support; counseling and articulation strategies to support grade-to-grade and school-to-school transitions and moves to and from special education, college, and post school living and work; and before and after school and inter-session activities to enrich learning and provide recreation in a safe environment. (Adapted from a 2006 policy paper published by the UCLA School Mental Health Project)
Transition from another school/transience between multiple schools due to parent jobs/economy/military
Pre-School to school transition
Transition between primary & secondary school
Transition between sec school and post-sec education
Transition between school and first job/including part time employment while in school
C. Comprehensive Approaches, Coordinated Agency-School Programs, Whole School Strategies to SMH
Overview: Multiple Intervention Programs in School Substance Abuse Prevention (GT)
School-based and school-linked multi-intervention programs that include policies, programs, services and selected organizational or professional practices can promote positive youth development, prevent premature or problematic substance use and other addictive behaviours, address interactions with other health/social issues and help students re-integrate after treatment or manage the impact of addictions. Several interventions can combined into "multi-intervention programs" that can be delivered through schools by educators and by other agencies, addictions, mental health and social service professionals, voluntary and community-based organizations as well as parents, students and volunteers. These interventions can be grouped into several elements, components or domains; including policy, instruction, preventive services, social supports and a healthy physical environment. Comprehensive approaches can link substance abuse/addictions to other health, social and economic issues such as mental health, abuse, traumatic life events, poverty and student dropout prevention among others. Consequently, comprehensive SAP approaches and programs need to be integrated with other similar approaches such as Social and Emotional Learning, Positive Behavior Support, Healthy Schools, Safe & Caring Schools, Wrap-Around Schools and others. These comprehensive approaches also recognize that school-based efforts need to be supported by multi-level actions taken by school boards, health authorities, mental health, addiction, social service and other agencies as well as health, education and other ministries/departments in governments and by national research, monitoring and knowledge management organizations. Coordinated school-agency substance abuse prevention programs delivered by these multiple agencies and schools can focus on substance abuse by building on strengths/assets such as emotional intelligence, social skills, mindfulness and other assets, preventing or managing life challenges that can lead to substance abuse problems and also increase social support by reducing stigma, supporting seamless integration with addictions, youth/ family and other health services, providing specialized programs for students with addictions. Whole school strategies can combine efforts by educators within the school such as policies on substance use/abuse, positive student discipline, alternatives to school suspensions, instructional programs that improve life/social skills, normative beliefs about substance use, factual and practical knowledge about drugs, self-knowledge and more. Student/school activities, parent education/involvement/support, youth-friendly facilities that promote student involvement, peer programs and staff wellness activities.
High quality research studies have reported short-term (1-3 years) changes to student substance use, related knowledge, selected skills, attitudes and behaviours as a result of multiple intervention approaches, coordinated school-agency programs and whole school strategies. These case studies are available in peer reviewed journals, literature reviews and some systematic reviews. Authoritative reports and better practice guidelines have been published by governments, international agencies and mental health advocates. Good quality educational programs, curriculum guides, policy guidelines, school self-assessment tools and training materials are available from several countries. Current challenges related to these multi-intervention programs include implementation and sustainability, coordination between systems, agencies and professionals, maintaining a "whole child", holistic and positive view of substance abuse/addictions while addressing specific problems and conditions. Research challenges include; knowing more about systems readiness, performance and capacity, measurement questions in self-reporting vs direct observations, understanding the benefits to student learning and school effectiveness and how to influence life-time habits and normative beliefs. (Source: International School Health Network)
C-1 SAP Statements, Models & Frameworks
SAP Multi-intervention models, statements
Integrating SAP with Dropout Prevention, Safe & Caring, Inclusion and Healthy School Approaches: Overview
Integrating SAP with SEL Models/MI programs
Integrating SAP with PBS programs
Integrating SAP into Safe & Caring schools models/MI Programs
Integrating SAP into Wrap-around/Full Service Schools Models/MI Programs
Integrating SAP into Healthy Schools Models/MI programs
Integrating MH into Multiculturalism/Diversity/Anti-Racism programs
Integrating SAP into school dropout prevention/learning support programs/approaches (GT)
C-2 Comprehensive Approaches (Multi-intervention plans/approaches/programs addressing multiple issues/not only SAP, multi-level, multi-agency)
Effective comprehensive MI approaches/programs on health/social development, including SA
Effective comprehensive MI approaches/programs on SA
Effective comprehensive MI approaches/programs on aspects of SA
C-3 Coordinated Agency-School Programs (on SAP only)
Effective coordinated agency-school MI approaches/programs on health/social development, including SA
Effective coordinated agency-school MI approaches/programs on SA
Effective coordinated agency-school MI approaches/programs on aspects of SA
C-4 Whole School (Educator only) Strategies on SAP
Effective Whole School MI plans/approaches/programs on health/social development, including SA
Effective Whole School Strategies on SA
Effective whole school strategies on aspects of SA
C-5 Effectiveness of SAP programs on learning, educational achievement
D. Use of Evidence-based and Experienced-tested Individual Interventions in SAP
D-1 Ministry, Agency, School Policy Interventions on SAP
Overview
Health, education, police, social service and mental health ministries, agencies, schools/clinics and their front-line professionals should have clearly defined policies governing how they will work within and with schools to prevent substance abuse. Policy is both an analytical tool, indicating progress being made by an organization toward a broad goal, as well as an action tool that can redirect resources, redefine staff priorities and roles and create new expectations for the organization. Policy interventions, by themselves, can have a positive impact, but it is far more effective to combine policy changes with other elements of a comprehensive approach and coordinated programs in areas such as instruction, health/police/mental health services, social support and physical environment/resources. Policies on substance abuse and other addictions are directly related to a variety of policy issues for schools and other agencies. (eg schools need to consider their policies on topics such as mental health, tobacco use, youth crime, student health services, parent involvement, youth engagement, etc. Police agencies need to consider issues such as community policing, youth engagement, restorative justice, youth criminal procedures etc) School substance abuse policies are established not only by schools but also by other agencies. They should also be established and aligned at several levels within those systems including professional roles/assignments, schools/local clinics, school boards/local agencies/police departments and government ministries. Policy making is not simply adopting a policy on paper. It is a cyclical process that includes consultations, adoption, implementation, evaluation and evolution Each of those phases contains several specific activities that should be undertaken as part of the policy-making pro cess. There are several preconditions for successful policy-making. These include a shared vision, attainable objectives, required skills among staff, incentives, resources and an action plan. There are four cornerstones to school health policy-making including having a policy on policy-making, a policy on Comprehensive School Health, policies on the different elements of a comprehensive approach such as health education to be provided by schools or health/addiction/enforcement services provided by agencies, and polices on several aspects of the health problem. There are several specific aspects of substance abuse that need to be covered in policy. These include:
• Underlying philosophy of the policy (abstinence, harm reduction, deterrence)
• Educational approach, expected outcomes for elementary, junior high and senior students
• Students (conduct, searches, seizure, suspensions, alternatives, assistance, records)
• Staff Conduct (suspensions, assistance)
• Role of guidance counselors
• Informing parents about drug incidents
• Police-school protocol
• Treatment-reintegration with school programs
• Alcohol at adult school functions or rentals
• Gambling at adult school functions or rentals
• Special Needs (FASD, Addicted Parents, Recovering students or staff, students with disabilities)
• Related health/social problems such as tobacco use, delinquency/crime, mental health problems
• Use of outside speakers and resource people
• Working with self-help and advocacy organizations
• Managing controversial or sensitive issues
• Adult (staff, volunteers) behaviours on field trips, student events
There are some key inter-agency policy issues to be considered. For example, ensuring that there are alternatives to simply suspending students from school requires action from social services, police, mental health agencies and police as well as the school system.
Adapted from School, Agency and Ministry Policy Resource published by the Canadian Association for School Health, with support from Health Canada
Whole of Government Policies
Health Sector (Ministries, Health Authorities & Addictions Agencies Policies/ Professional Guidelines re working with schools)
Education Sector (Ministries, School Boards and Education Professional Guidelines re SAP)
Law Sector (Ministries, Youth Courts, Police Service policies re SAP and schools)
Social Service/ Child Protection Sector (Ministry & Agency Policies & Professional Guidelines re SAP and working with schools)
Mental Health Sector (Ministry, MH Agencies, guidelines for MH Professionals)
D-2 Curriculum & Instruction in SAP
Overview
Curriculum Design/ Learning Objectives
Intended Audience: Universal, Targeted, Indicated
Focus on Skills, Normative Beliefs, Facts and Functional Behaviours
Instructional Programs
Teaching Learning Methods/ Classroom Management
Web-based Learning in SAP
Parent Involvement in Instruction
Peer-based Instruction
Awareness & Information Classroom Programs using Celebrities, Survivors or Community or PH Personnel
Teacher Education & Development
Also see our Glossary Term describing Teacher Education and Development for all health/social issues
Student Assessment & Evaluation re SAP
D-3 Addictions and other Services delivered in or linked with schools
Overview
Early Identification, Screening & Referral Services
Brief Counselling Services
Internet-based Support Programs
Student Assistance Programs
Coordinated Case Management & Coordination with Schools
School Support during Treatment, Incarceration, incl. cooperation with family-based programs
School Support for Re-integration
Individual Education Programs (IEP) programs for students with Addictions problems/Alternative Schools
Including SAP referrals and early intervention services in School Clinics in or Clinics closely linked with schools
Crisis Response & Follow-Up Services for Students, Parents, Staff
School-based crisis response/intervention and follow up refers to a range of responses schools can provide in response to a variety of crisis events and subsequent reactions. All school-based and school-linked staff can play an important role in responding to a crisis and ensuring a return to normalcy as soon as possible. Given the variety and complexity of crisis events and reactions, planning and implementing school-based crisis intervention require special expertise (e.g., how to deal with natural disasters as contrasted to dealing with gang violence or suicide, how to plan for crowd management, rumor control, aftermath counseling, prevention). Thus, individuals and subgroups with diverse expertise need to be involved, and all who are involved usually need additional specialized in-service training.. Whatever happens at the school level is shaped by district policy and procedural guidelines. In most instances, the district's administration will have provided the school with detailed guidelines for handling major incidents during the emergency itself and in the immediate aftermath. Such guidelines also should clarify available district support resources (e.g., district crisis teams, medical and counseling services). School districts and the relevant other agencies should address, in the same detail, policies and procedures for what to do in the days and weeks that follow the event as well as a process for collecting data and feedback throughout the events to be used to improve future responses or to prevent future occurrences where feasible. In this glossary term, we briefly describe the crisis response and follow up activities suitable for emergencies derived from or primarily concerned with mental health issues such as suicide or violence. Other terms in this encyclopedia address situations derived from natural disasters or disease outbreaks which also have mental health consequences but are longer term and more widespread in scope. As well, this glossary term is more focused on the crisis related to drug use and related incidents such as delinquency, in-school violence or weapon use rather than the physical safety and emergency management considerations which are addressed in other summaries in this encyclopedia.
As part of overall crisis response planning, the school district and its partner addictions and police service agencies and professionals should consider, in advance of a crisis, (1) how to anticipate potential drug and crime related incidents, (2) how to assess and triage injury, medical and psychological trauma, (3) what types of responses will be made with respect to students, staff, parents, district, community, media (4) what special provisions will be implemented to address language, cultural and other specific community-driven considerations, (5) which school, agency and professional personnel will make the responses, (6) how district and community resources will be used, (7) which personnel will review the adequacy of each response and make appropriate subsequent recommendations to revise the crises response plans and (8) what in-service staff development and training are needed to prepare all relevant staff. Specialized staff should be assigned by the school district, addictions agencies, police services, hospitals and other regional organizations during and immediately following a crisis or incident.
Crisis response procedures should be preceded by a variety of crime, delinquency and drug prevention activities. An American study (Gottfredson et al 2000) found that the majority of school districts had three types of such prevention activities, with several different interventions within each. These included; (1) prevention activities such as providing information to staff, students and parents (90%) , additions or improvements to the curriculum (76%), counselling, social work and psychological services (75%), behaviour modification programs (64%), enriched recreational opportunities (64%), individual attention, mentoring, tutoring (58%), services to families (55%) and staff assistance programs (49%); (2) organizational and environmental changes including re-organization of grades. Classes or schedules (81%), architectural features of the school (76%), use of external personnel in classes (72%), distinctive school cultures for interpersonal exchanges (66%), improved instructional methods (62%), improved classroom organization and management methods (57%), school-based change management plans (57%), improved inter-group relations with the community (57%) and altered school composition (32%); and (3) improved safety and discipline management including revised rules, regulations, laws or enforcement practices (100%), additional security and surveillance measures (55%) and engaging youth in regulating and responding to student conduct (40%).
Anticipation or risk mitigation measures should be based on good monitoring and tracking of individual student behaviours through the use of office referrals, suspensions and expulsions. There are effective, comprehensive programs such as Positive Behavior Support (PBS) which schools can use. However, variations in communities and changes to staffing, budgets and priorities over time can make this monitoring and individualized follow-up challenging. Indeed, another US study of students (Pollack et al, 2008) those who attacked other students in school exhibited concerning behavior prior to the attack in 93% of the incidents, and more significantly, at least one other person (usually friends, peers siblings) had some type of knowledge of the attacker’s plan in 81% of the incidents and more than one person had such knowledge in 59% of the incidents. This finding suggests that staff will not necessarily be sufficiently aware and that students are potentially a very valuable resource for averting incidents. The emergency measures taken by police or school personnel will need to be part of a comprehensive school board-police service agreement or protocol (eg Ontario Model Protocol). However, the existence of protocols is in itself not a guarantee of effective inter-agency cooperation in investigations (Minor et al, 2008). Many of the critical incidents examined in the Secret Service and Education Department study lasted no more than 20 minutes. In fact, 47 percent lasted 15 minutes or less from the beginning of the shooting to the time the attacker was apprehended, surrendered, stopped shooting, left the school or committed suicide; one-quarter were over within five minutes. Given the short duration of most school attacks, it is crucial for schools to have prevention efforts and critical incident response plans in place. According to a 2006 national survey by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 95 percent of school districts had a comprehensive plan to address crisis preparedness, response and recovery. Of these districts, about 82 percent provided funding for training or offered training on the plan to faculty and staff during the two preceding years. As for individual schools, 97 percent had a crisis preparedness, response and recovery plan, and among these schools, 87 percent provided training on the plan to faculty and staff. The aftermath activities following a drug or crime incident in school should include the use of alternatives to school suspensions programs by schools/courts for the offenders and restorative justice for victims and offenders. Additional psychological support and follow up for victims and bystanders are described in the glossary Term and related documents on Mental Health Crisis Response Programs & Follow Up included in this Encyclopedia.
Adapted from the sources cited above and The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the Prevention of School Attacks in the United States), Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education, May 2002., Toward Safe and Orderly Schools— The National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools, National Institute on Justice Responding to a Crisis at School, UCLA School Mental Health Project
Role of Physicians, Clinics, Hospitals re SAP & Schools
Role of School Social Worker, Social Services Agency re SAP & Schools
Role of PH Nurse, PH Programs & Health Authority in SAP & Schools
Role of School Guidance Counsellor, SB Student Services re SAP
Role of Pastoral Care Worker, Local Clergy re SAP
Role of Police Officer, Police Services re SAP
Role of School Psychologists, local psychologists re SAP
Role of School Principal in SAP
Role of Classroom Teachers in SAP service delivery
Role of Trained Peer Helpers in SAP
Role of Parent Volunteers, Adult Mentors in SAP
D-4 Social Support Interventions
Overview
School Climate Programs
Advocates of whole school climate programs suggest that the social, physical and learning environments in the school play a major role in shaping the quality of school life, learning, and the mental health of all who are involved. (School/classroom climate sometimes is referred to as the learning environment, as well as by terms such as atmosphere, ambience, ecology, and milieu.) The advocated ideal is to create an atmosphere that fosters smooth transitions, positive informal encounters, and social interactions; facilitates social support; provides opportunities for ready access to information and for learning how to function effectively in the school culture; and encourages involvement in decision making. Recent research suggests that marginalized students may not benefit from general efforts to improve the social climate in the school and require specific interventions designed to establish or strengthen social attachments (relationships) with positive role model peers, teachers, parent volunteers, coaches and others or through positive behavior support programs. Other elements of a positive social climate in schools include; a caring atmosphere, social support mechanisms for students, staff and parents, an array of options for students to pursue academic, vocational and life goals, meaningful participation of students, staff and parents in school decision-making, transforming classroom instruction and management to maximize intrinsic motivation and reduce student groupings/placement based solely on academic achievement, providing instruction and responding to student problems in a personalized way, using a variety of strategies to address or prevent student behaviour problems as soon as they arise, a healthy, attractive and safe physical environment. (Adapted from a 2006 policy report published by the UCLA School Mental Health Project.)
School Discipline/Conduct Rules & SAP
Anti-stigma programs & campaigns
Anti-harassment, anti-bullying policies, programs & campaigns
Youth/Student Engagement
Youth/Student Empowerment
Youth Facilitator to Prevent SA
Student Advisor
School activities to promote positive youth development and prevent SA
After school programs that promote positive youth development and prevent SA
Student Friendship Programs
Student Leadership/ Advocacy Programs
Peer Helper Programs
Mentoring Programs
Inter-generational activities
Parent Information, Involvement, Education and Support: Overview
Parent Information Activities
Parent Involvement & Volunteer Programs
Parent Education, Training & Support Programs
Working with Community & Self-help Organizations
Working with Local Media
Staff Wellness & Occ. Safety/Health Programs
D-5 Physical Environment & Resources
Overview
Safe & Secure Transportation to school
Adequate lighting
Student friendly places within school
Safe & Secure school grounds
E. Implementation, Operations, Capacity, Sustainability & Systems Change in SAP
Overview
E-1 Evidence-based, Practical & Strategic Implementation/Operations Planning in SAP
Overview: Defining, Measuring, Monitoring High Quality Implementation/Operation of SAP Approaches & Programs
Use of Evidence-based Implementation Planning Models in SAP
Practical Planning: Using normal implementation mechanisms and engaging stakeholders in SAP
Strategic Planning : Local Drivers of Change or Resistance in SAP
E-2 Diffusion of Successful SAP Programs
Overview
Distribution, Dissemination & Diffusion Strategies
Critical Appraisal of the innovation & "fit" with education, health, police and addictions systems & local context
Fidelity Issues in SAP
E-3 Capacity and Capacity Building in SAP
Evidenced-based minimums for staffing, curriculum time, access & service delivery in SAP
Ministry & Inter-ministry policy, leadership & coordination in SAP
Inter-agency policy, coordination in SAP
Assigned staff to coordination in SAP
Formal & Informal mechanisms for cooperation in SAP including: - inter-ministry agreements, - inter-agency agreements, - inter-ministry committees, joint service and budget planning
Knowledge exchange in SAP
Workforce development in SAP including:- teacher education programs, - inter-professional ed programs, - teacher development programs, - special certificates, - police officer development, - nurse, social worker development programs
Monitoring, reporting and program evaluation in SAP including: - monitoring of substance use/abuse status/behaviours, attitudes, - monitoring of student learning about SAP, - monitoring of system/organizational and professional capacity in SAP, - school self-assessments, - school recognition programs, - Indicator development, - survey development
Strategic & joint Management of Emerging & Priority Issues
Explicit planning for Sustainability
E-4 Sustainability
Overview
E-5 Consideration of system characteristics and change in SAP
Overview
Applications of Systems Change Models in SAP
Open Adaptive Systems & SAP
Loosely-coupled systems & SAP
Professional Bureaucratic systems & SAP
Working across multiple systems in SAP
Blueprint for system change in health/addiction systems to support school SAP
Blueprint for system change in police services systems to support school SAP
Blueprint for system change in mental health systems to support school SAP
Blueprint for system change in education systems to support school SAP
F Consideration of Local Community Context
Overview
F-1 Cultural, Linguistic & Faith Communities
F-2 Aboriginal/ Indigenous Communities
F-3 Rural Communities
F-4 Disadvantaged Communities
F-5 Affluent Communities
F-6 Countries, regions affected by war, conflict, disasters
F-7 Low income countries
G. Consideration of the primary roles, professional norms and ideologies and constraints of school systems
G-1 Consideration of Primary Roles, Functions of Schooling
Overview
Primary Role: Accreditation/Sorting & Selecting Role means many students must fail
Primary role; Socialization into mainstream norms, social control
Competition with primary academic & vocational roles
G-2 Consideration of Professional Norms & Ideologies of educators
Norm: All students deserve equal time and attention
Norm: Disruptions in class cannot be tolerated because need for orderly learning
G-3 Consideration of social, economic & political constraints on schools re SAP
Constraint: Parent rights and privacy must be respected
H. Major Research Issues
H-1 Published Knowledge & Research Agendas in SAP
H-2 Research Connecting SAP & Learning
H-3 Cost-effectiveness & cost benefit studies in SAP
H-4 Use of multiple research methods in SAP
H-5 Methodological, Measurement & Technical Issues in SAP Research
This document presents a number of draft glossary terms that have been adapted or prepared from a variety of sources and published in draft form in the World Encyclopedia on School Health, Safety, Equity, Social and Sustainable Development, which acts as a shared work space for many organizations and individuals. The aim of this document is to collate the various draft terms and invite many others to comment on or even edit the summaries in the Wikipedia style web site. Our goal is to develop a series of common terms that can help in discussions around the world about school-based and school-linked substance abuse prevention.
These terms are based on a synthesis of better practices (International School Health, 2011) derived from a review of the statements, models, frameworks and planning models developed over decades in several sectors to promote health, safety, equity, social and sustainable development through schools. The synthesis has been used to develop an extensive, detailed, evidence-based and experience-tested outline for collecting research, resources and reports on broad health issues such as substance abuse or mental health as well as on interventions, theories and other aspects of school-based and school-linked human development.
The purpose of the glossary terms listed below is to provide a clearly stated, one or two paragraph definition that is free of jargon and easily understandable to a variety of audiences. Misconceptions or popular misuses of the term should be addressed. We provide a concise definition in one or two sentences, briefly describe the elements or aspects of the topic, refer to its common usage (and misconceptions/misuse) and how the concept is related to other aspects of school health promotion or social development. Where possible, we also try to provide a very brief summary of the quality of the evidence supporting its use or the experience in using the concept in real world practice.
Recipients of this document are invited to select the glossary terms relevant to their work or ongoing interest, click on the links provided to access the wiki-based draft and either comment on or edit the draft directly on the web site. (The Wetpaint social media web site we are using retains all previous versions of the summary.) Participants can either create a Wetpaint account (no cost, no spam) and then sign in to the web site or simply make their suggestions or edits anonymously.)
These terms are mostly in “rough draft” of “first draft” formats. Once the terms have been discussed online over several months through wiki-based editing and/or webinars/web meetings, they will be published as a “first edition” and the content will be locked, thereby preventing further edits but allowing for additional comments. Readers of this document may also want to review the list of operational definitions related to mental health developed for our World Encyclopedia which are part of an attempt to define key words (eg curriculum) that are used in different ways by many organizations and systems around the world without discussing the content as we do in these ``glossary terms``. A particularly important definition is reproduced below because there is often confusion and a lack of clarity in how the terms such as health-promoting schools, community schools, safe schools etc. are used in regard to their focus (single or multiple health/social issues, which ministries, agencies and professionals are delivering services or is it educators/schools alone? etc
- "School Multiple Intervention Plans or Programs (SMIP's) refers to plans (approaches, models, frameworks) and defined programs that combine and coordinated sets of multiple interventions that are delivered through and in schools. These multiple interventions are delivered by a variety of agencies and professions. They can be delivered through comprehensive approaches (Delivered by a variety of employees at multiple levels in different systems), in coordinated agency and school board programs delivered by local agencies working with school boards/schools or in whole school strategies that use only educators at the school level. Often these plans/approaches/models are developed into specific multi-intervention programs that tested and can be replicated."
The topics in this lengthy list have been gathered from several sources and previous activities. They have been presented in the global “call for contributors” issued by the International Discussion Group on School Substance Abuse Prevention in cooperation with several international organizations with a concern for school-based or school-linked substance abuse prevention.
We wish to thank several organizations and individuals who allowed us to reproduce or adapt their work in creating this initial set of glossary terms. In particular, we express our appreciation to…(to be added)
School Substance Abuse Prevention: A Glossary
Substance Abuse & Schools: An Overview
While a significant proportion of young people do not use any substance, the use of alcohol becomes normative in the high school years and cannabis or tobacco use may also become common. Widespread use of alcohol and other substances by young people is not surprising given their developmental stage (e.g. their need to experiment, take risks, and gain autonomy) and various mixed messages they receive from society. These universal factors are in many ways limited to the adolescent period and call for universal programming to help students navigate this period and to keep safe. Some young people clearly experience a greater accumulation of risk factors. These usually arise early in life (e.g. personality, family problems) and interact with early school adjustment pathways. It is these young people that appear at particular risk for early use of legal substances, harmful use of illicit substances and for problems that endure beyond adolescence. Targeted programming is necessary to shift the developmental trajectories of these higher risk children and youth. The need for schools to play a role on this issue becomes clearer when it is understood that student substance use can affect learning and academic performance. Substance abuse can also hamper a young person’s ability to master key developmental tasks (cognitive, emotional and social).
The influence of the school environment can be examined in four areas, the social environment of the school, the physical environment of the school, the impact of school processes and routines and the impact of school-related transitions on the child's development. There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that the social attachments formed during the school day, with peers, teachers, mentors, coaches and others as well as the overall ethos of the school can have a significant impact on the health of its students. Similarly, the physical attributes of school buildings, facilities and grounds can have an impact through the relative safety, security and supervision made possible by those physical elements. School organization, through practices such as middle and senior high schools, the use of teacher advisers and "home rooms" in large schools, and student discipline, recognition, reward and promotion/retention practices will have an impact as early as grade one. Finally, the critical transitions between pre-school and regular school, into high school, out of high school into further studies or work and even between schools after family moves can lead to experimentation or use of substances. In particular, the mix of age groups within large high schools can be a significant factor. Schools acting with the direction and support of government ministries, school boards and working collaboratively with other agencies and professionals as well as parents and young people, can make a substantial contribution to preventing substance abuse among youth. This may include but not be limited to the following: developing awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs and behavioural intentions among students, educators and parents; creating supportive social support programs that engage youth and involve parents, making changes to the physical environments, facilities and transportation routes to schools; helping to deliver programs that can assist in the identification, triage and referral of young people at risk of substance abuse; providing "on site" services to address substance use and related problems; providing on-going liaison with health care providers to meet the needs of youth receiving treatment for addictions; promoting staff wellness and more. These actions can be grouped and coordinated within comprehensive approaches, coordinated agency-school programs and whole school strategies which have been defined as "drug-free schools", "safe & caring schools" and "healthy schools". These frameworks, plans and programs (SMIP's) have been developed to promote positive youth development and "youth assets" as well as prevent substance abuse and are consistent with synthesis of experience-tested and research-based models to promote health, safety, equity, social and sustainable development through schools. The development of school substance abuse prevention programs has evolved over the past two decades. The first efforts were focused in instructional programs that have gone from didactic, medically driven strategies to ones that teach life skills and help students to understand themselves and the social influences affecting their choices. Other early attempts to use only single intervention programs such as "no tolerance" policies or brief counseling sessions have also evolved as we recognized the need for multiple, coordinated interventions at several levels in several systems. More recently, school health promotion research and practice has moved towards more ecological and systems-based approaches. These new understandings have led to greater attention to issues such as implementation, capacity-building, sustainability, adapting programs to fit local contexts and the complexity of systems change.
Key Concepts
Substance Use, Abuse and Addictions
Harm Reduction
Social & Emotional Learning
Behaviour Support
Assets/Strengths
Resilience
Universal, Targeted and Indicated Programs
A. Prevalence, Nature & Theories on Substance Abuse, Prevention/Promotion & Schools
Overview
A-1 Prevalence of Substance Use, Abuse and other Addictions among youth
Prevalence Data and Reports
Understanding the Nature of Substance Use, Abuse and Addictions
Impact of social influences (Parents, peers, media, social norms)
Impact of social determinants (gender, culture, economic status, etc)
Genetic factors (temperament, intelligence etc)
Influence of stages over the life course (e.g. puberty)
A-2 Specific Aspects of Substance Abuse, Strengths, Risks, Behaviours & Conditions
Overviews
Individual Protective Factors/Assets
Positive Life Outlook/Life Goals
Emotional Intelligence & Development
Brain Development
Mindfulness/Contemplative Practices-Skills
Probably the most widely quoted definition of mindfulness is from Jon Kabat-Zinn, who states that that…"Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and non judgmentally”. Mindfulness is attracting considerable attention from a number of sectors. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy is now a treatment for depression recommended by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence in the UK and in recent years there has been a proliferation of mindfulness-based applications for conditions as varied as stress in the workplace, eating disorders and intimate partner violence. Mindfulness can be presented as an entirely secular practice or as a more 'spiritual' one. At school, mindfulness is best presented as a secular discipline from which pupils benefit in many ways 1. The benefits of teaching mindfulness to adolescents were explored and confirmed in research between Tonbridge School and the Cambridge University Well-being Institue in 2007 (Burnett, 2007). Mindfulness dovetails well with the increased emphasis in schools on the social and emotional aspects of learning. However, a recent review (Greenberg & Harris, 2012) suggests that although there is great interest and potential promise for contemplative interventions, enthusiasm for promoting such practices outweighs the current evidence supporting them. Interventions that nurture mindfulness in children and youth may be a feasible and effective method of building resilience in universal populations and in the treatment of disorders in clinical populations. This review suggests that meditation and yoga may be associated with beneficial outcomes for children and youth, but the generally limited quality of research tempers the allowable conclusions. Well-designed experimental studies that are grounded in developmental theory and measure multiple indicators of change must fully test the efficacy of such interventions. Indeed, several organizations have already developed instructional or multi-intervention programs to promote mindfulness, stress reduction/management and related skills. 1. In this encyclopedia, we discuss the spiritual aspects under our Glossary Term entitled “Spirituality/Character/Values/Religious Beliefs” which places more emphasis on reflecting on our behaviours from a moral, spiritual or religious basis.
Self Knowledge/Self Concept
Self-Regulation/Control
Children’s ability to direct their attention and behavior to learning tasks provides a foundation for healthy social and academic development in early and later schooling. Although an explosion of research on this topic has occurred in recent years, the field has been hindered by a lack of conceptual clarity, as well as debate over underlying components and their significance in predicting school success. In addition, few measures tap these skills as children move into formal schooling. Self-regulation is a broad and multidimensional construct consisting of both behavioral and cognitive processes. Thus, researchers often study these processes from either a behavioral and temperament-based approach or a cognitive/neural systems approach. The temperament-based framework often focuses on effortful control, whereas the cognitive or neuroscience framework often focuses on executive functions. Although literatures on effortful control and executive functions come from different research traditions, the field needs to view them as complementary rather than incompatible. One way of looking at is a bidirectional model of cognition–emotion interaction in the development of self-regulation in which top-down executive control of thought and behavior develops in reciprocal and interactive relation to bottom-up influences of emotion and stress reactivity. Few studies include associations of emotions, or of individual differences in emotionality, to academic competence, and there are virtually no empirical data on when or why relations exist (or do not exist). The few studies of emotion and achievement have largely focused on anxiety, but there has been scant theoretical and empirical attention devoted to the treatment of other emotions. It is suggested that considering the moderated and indirect effects of students’ emotions on their academic functioning may provide an understanding of whether and under what circumstances emotions are related to achievement. Researchers can learn much about relations between emotions and achievement by considering the potential moderating role of effortful control, as well as considering the mediating roles that cognitive processes, motivational mechanisms, and classroom relationships play in linking emotions and achievement. (Adapted from the abstracts of several articles on self-regulation found in the June 2012 Issue of Child Development Perspectives)
Critical Thinking/Intelligence
Spirituality/Character/Values/Religious Beliefs
Social/Life Skills
Resilient ways of thinking/coping skills
Protective Conditions & Factors
Social Attachments with Parents
Social Attachments with Friends/Positive Peer Group
Social Attachments with other Trusted Adults
Individual Risk Factors
Vulnerability in Transitions between Levels of Schooling or Schools
Bereavement
Stress/Distress
Social Isolation/ Loneliness/Social Exclusion
Divorce/Family Breakdown
Homelessness/ Transient home life
Trauma from Violence, War, Disasters
Children Living with a Parent with an addiction
Risk Factors Related to Other Individual Health, Social and Genetic Problems
Mental Illnesses and Problems
Depression
Intellectual, Physical & Learning Disabilities
ADHD
FASD
Child Abuse/Neglect and Family Violence
Child Sexual Abuse
Pregnancy/Young Parenthood
Bullying/Aggression & Bystander Trauma/Violence
Homophobia/ Gender Ambiguity/ Sexual Orientation
Behaviour Disorders/ Delinquency/ Criminal Behaviour
Risk Conditions and Collective Factors
Economic, social or geographical disadvantage
Cultural Isolation/Discrimination/Challenges for immigrant students in Integrating (GT)
The concerns for schools in addressing the mental health needs of immigrant students are primarily derived from their limited English language skills and cultural differences, both of which may generate behaviors among peers and staff that are associated with prejudice and discrimination. Additional intervention concerns arise when students’ families are undocumented, are refugees from war zones, are living in poverty, or are experiencing inter-generational conflict at home. In developing appropriate policies and practices, schools must understand the diverse nature of immigrant subgroups. The heterogeneity arises from a myriad of factors. Families leave their country of origin for different reasons. The experiences of young people during migration vary considerably. Upon arriving in their new home, they are involved in complex transactions; other challenges arise during the settling in period. As they cope with diverse situations and events, the outcomes are sometimes positive, sometimes negative. Over time, most youngsters assimilate, albeit in a variety of ways; some, however, remain outside the mainstream of school life. School mental health programs for immigrant students should address the specific psychological and emotional needs of immigrant students, respond specifically to the various needs of such students described above and be integrated with school approaches/programs promoting acceptance of diverse cultures, preventing discrimination and encouraging retention of one’s cultural heritage. (Adapted from a brief on immigrant students prepared by the UCLA School Mental Health Project.)
Cultural Oppression/ Colonization
Stigma about substance abuse/ Help Seeking
Specific Harmful Behaviours or Conditions that can addressed in Programs
Drinking/Drug Use while driving/Friends drinking & driving/
Substance Use while deciding about sexual activity
Binge Drinking
Tobacco Use
Leaving drinks unattended in bars
Illicit or Illegal Drugs
Illegal use of alcohol (under-age drinking)
Use of alcohol by athletes
Normative beliefs about alcohol use
Normative beliefs about tobacco use
Normative beliefs about medications
A-3 Behaviour Theories that Explain SAP problems or approaches
Overview
Social-Emotional Intelligence
Social intelligence according to Edward Thorndike, is "the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations" [1]. It is equivalent to interpersonal intelligence, one of the types of intelligences identified in Howard Gardner's Theory of multiple intelligences, and closely related to Emotional intelligence which is also discussed in this glossary term. Some authors have restricted the definition to deal only with knowledge of social situations, which this encyclopedia has discussed separately under the term social learning/cognition. Social intelligence lies behind group interactions and behaviours. Research psychologists studying social cognition and social neuroscience have discovered many principles which human social intelligence operates. In early work on this topic, psychologists Nancy Cantor and John Kihlstrom outlined the kinds of concepts people use to make sense of their social relations (e.g., “What situation am I in and what kind of person is this who is talking to me?”), and the rules they use to draw inferences (“What did he mean by that?”) and plan actions (“What am I going to do about it?”). In 2005, business writer Karl Albrecht proposed a five-part model of social intelligence with the acronym "S.P.A.C.E." - 1) Situational Awareness, 2) Presence, 3) Authenticity, 4) Clarity, and 5) Empathy. Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups. Various models and definitions have been proposed of which the ability and trait EI models are the most widely accepted in the scientific literature. Ability EI is usually measured using maximum performance tests and has stronger relationships with traditional intelligence, whereas trait EI is usually measured using self-report questionnaires and has stronger relationships with personality..The EI model introduced by Daniel Goleman[2] focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines five main EI constructs, each comprised of specific competencies, including (1) Self-awareness – the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on others, (2) Self-regulation – involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances, (3) Social skill – managing relationships to move people in the desired direction, (4) Empathy - considering other people's feelings especially when making decisions and (5) Motivation - being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement. Goleman suggests that Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Like IQ, Social IQ is based on the "100 point" scale, in which 100 is the average score. Scores of 140 or above are considered to be very high. Social IQ has until recently been measured by techniques such as question and answer sessions. These sessions assess the person's pragmatic abilities however some tests have been developed to measure social intelligence. This test is often useful in diagnosing autism spectrum disorders, including autism and Asperger's Syndrome. Psychotherapy often involves helping people to modify their patterns of social intelligence, particularly those that cause them problems in their interpersonal relations. Some efforts are also underway to use computer-based interventions to help people develop their own social intelligence. Paul Ekman, for example, has created the MicroExpression Training Tool, to allow people to practice identifying the brief emotional expressions that flit across people’s faces. The website MindHabits.com offers a research-based software program with which people learn to modify their mind habits, focusing attention on positive social feedback and inhibiting attention to the social threats and rejections that can cause stress. Other interventions, for example to help autistic individuals develop social perception and interaction skills, are also in development. Several effective instructional programs for all children now include the development of social or emotional intelligence as part of their intended learning outcomes. For example, the PATHS program targets social and emotional competence to build protective factors and decrease behavioural problems. The Roots of Empathy program begins with a focus on the development of empathy and then expands outwards to include other aspects of social & emotional learning.
References:
1. Thorndike, E.L. (1920). Intelligence and its use. Harper's Magazine, 140, 227-235
2. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books
Also see our Glossary Terms for Social Learning/Cognition Theory and Social & Emotional Learning Programs/Models
Attachment Theory & Schools
Attachment theory, originating in the work of Rosie-May, is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory that provides a framework for understanding relationships between human beings. Attachment theorists have primarily focused on young children and abused children in their need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers, without which normal social and emotional development will not occur. However, recently, the concept has been used to examine the relationships and development of older children, teens and even adults (Kenny, 2011; Greenberg et al, 1983 ). Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. Parental responses to their children lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts and expectations in later relationships. Methods exist for measurement of attachment patterns in older infants and adults, although measurement in middle childhood is problematic. In addition to care-seeking by children, one may construe other interactions as including some components of attachment behaviour; these include peer relationships of all ages, romantic and sexual attraction, and responses to the care needs of infants or sick or elderly adults. Bowlby published the full theory in the trilogy Attachment and Loss, 1969–82. Attachment theory has become the dominant approach to understanding early social development and given rise to a great surge of empirical research into the formation of children's close relationships. Attachment-based therapy is a phrase intended to apply to interventions or approaches based on attachment theory. These range from individual therapeutic approaches to public health programs to interventions specifically designed for foster carers. The theory has been used in a deficit model to identify and understand how minority, troubled and abused students can be excluded from schools and thereby face greater risks to their health and continuing development (Tharinger & Wells, 2000; Mennen & O’Keefe, 2004; Moore et al, 1997). However, more recent applications of the theory have used social attachment in strength-based approaches. For example, school-based programs such as The Gatehouse Program in Australia are based on attachment theory. The assets model developed by the Search Institute lists several practical “supports” in its model that are derived from attachment theory. Attachment theory has also been used to explain how students become attached to teachers and peers; thereby having an impact on their success in school, career choices and mental health (Commardari, 2012; Wilkinson, 2009; Vignoli et al, 2003; Millings et al, 2012). It has also been used to explain how teacher and school administrator comfort and skills with forming attachments can affect academic, health and social outcomes (Morris-Rothschild & Brassard, 2006; Koohsar & Bonab, 2011).
Social Learning theory
Resilience
The word, resilience, stems from the Latin resilire (to recoil or leap back). Rubber bands and balls have resilience in this sense, and people are sometimes said to “bounce back” (metaphorically) after a difficult experience. But resilience has a broader meaning in science, generally referring to the phenomenon of positive adaptation in any kind of system following a serious challenge to the system’s function or viability. Resilience, therefore, is an inherent or fostered capacity or response mechanism, within all individuals, organizations and communities that is used to overcome significant challenges. Resilience is not manifested when no significant risk or challenge is encountered or when normal problems are overcome. We see examples and evidence of resilience when the normal interaction among the traits of the individual, the conditions or factors within the environments in which they live, learn and work and the processes that shape those interactions results in some individuals surviving or flourishing when the odds against success would suggest otherwise. A strengthened response mechanism (resilience) in the environment might be health services that focus on early recognition, referral and reintegration rather than just on treatment after the problem is acute. A strengthened response mechanism (increased resilience) in the interaction between the individual and the environment might be illustrated in the field of mental health. Stigma about mental health problems and illness often causes people to not seek help. Most school curricula now teach skills relating to accessing health services (this is standard health promotion strategy) but if the interaction with the social environment still discourages help-seeking, then we will not be effective. Therefore, anti-stigma campaigns are a way to increase resilience by influencing that interaction. A response mechanism within an individual is easier to identify and can include things such as temperament, intelligence and genetics as well as specific survival strategies or coping skills, positive ways of thinking routines to rebuild confidence or reduce stress etc. Teaching resilience as a character trait would likely be very challenging but schools can teach skills such as anger and stress management and how to access health services as well as teach all students to be more empathetic and supportive of others. A comprehensive approach to promoting resilience would include actions at all three levels; environment, interactions and individual. The absence of resilience can also be a way to understand the term. For example, most children will bounce back after the death of their pet. They have family, friends and other activities that sustain them. However, if they don't such assets, they become more vulnerable, even to such normal life challenges, so their response mechanisms or capacity for resilience is diminished. As well, their capacity for resilience might be weakened by other interactions with their environment ocurring at the same time, such as the divorce of their parents, a move to a new neighbourhood or a bully at school. Promoting resilience is not the same thing as promoting health by creating better conditions or healthier behaviours. Preventing problems or reducing risks is also not the same thing as promoting resilience. Resilience is more closely associated with the third and fourth of the broad goals of school health promotion (1-Promotion, 2-Prevention, 3-Assistance with Treatment and 4-Reintegration into schooling). Resilience theory and knowledge suggests we look more closely at the response mechanisms (within individuals, environments and interactions) and see if they can be modified to better support people experiencing significant challenges. Resilience theory joins other behavioural theories in guiding school-based programs to become more effective in helping students, staff and schools recover from significant challenges. In brief, resilience theory has helped such programs to be more:(1) positive in their approach, recognizing strengths and assets in students, processes and school/community conditions (2) focused on student connectedness to and engagement in schools as well as trusting relationships with adults, peers and parents (3)concerned with the development of self-efficacy and self-knowledge among students (4)attentive to the needs of students experiencing significant challenges (such as poverty, family stress/abuse etc) as well as students who may be more vulnerable to normal life challenges because of particular processes or times in their lives. Resilience offers us deep insights into the critical characteristics of the individual child, the environments in which they live, learn and play, and the interventions (policies, procedures, programs, practices) that shape their days and time in school. As well, resilience offers us a new lens to look at; developing and building strengths within individuals as they encounter risk rather than rushing to label and fix their problems; identifying students who may be more at risk in certain situations or in certain transitions and helping us to intervene earlier; looking at combinations of programs or interventions that can be more effective in certain situations or with certain groups of students In essence, fostering resilience is synonymous with strengthening the response mechanisms within individuals, within organizations such as schools, or within social and physical environments such as communities or cultures or within the interactions between the individual and their surrounding social/physical environments. This strengthening of individual, organizational or interactive response mechanisms is different than, although complementary, to promoting healthy conditions or behaviours as well as preventing or reducing selected risks
Stages of Change/ Trans-theoretical Model
Self-Determination Theory
Cognitive Behaviour Theory
Health Belief Model
Risk Reduction/ Harm Reduction
Planned Behaviour Theory
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) is a theory of the factors that determine an individual‘s decision to adopt or maintain a particular behaviour. An extension of Ajzen and Fishbein‘s (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action, the TPB postulates that the most immediate determinant of a person‘s behaviour is behavioural intention—that is, what the person intends or plans to do. According to the theory, intention is a function of three factors; one‘s attitudes toward the behaviours which reflect the person’s evaluation and salient beliefs about the likely outcomes of the behaviour; the perceived social pressure (subjective norms) to perform the particular behaviour which determined by normative beliefs about the behavior and the perceived amount of control the individual has over the behaviour or the relative ease or difficulty in performing the particular behaviour based on past experiences and the anticipation of obstacles. In general, the more positive these three components (attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control) are, the stronger the intention is to perform the given behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and, consequently the behaviour is more likely to appear. Other researchers (Armitage & Connor, 2012; Hardeman et al, 2002) have questioned the relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior because some studies report that due to circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, "perceived behavioral control." to the theory of reasoned action to cover non-completion of the intended behaviour.. The TPB (as well as its predecessor, the Theory of Reasoned Action) has also been used to understand student intentions and behaviours in regard to several behaviours (Webb & Sheeran, 2006) physical activity (Lazuras et al, 2011; Godin, Valois & Lepage, 1993), dieting (Conner et al., 1996), the use of condoms (Reineike et al, 2006; Boldero, Moore & Rosenthal, 2006), drinking and driving (Marcil et al., 2001; Parker et al., 1992), cigarette smoking (McMillan & Conner, 2003; Higgins & Conner, 2003),alcohol use ( Connor et al, 2006) and the use of marijuana and other illicit drugs (Conner & McMillan, 1999) Consequently, it is not surprising that many school curricula help students to develop “behavioural intentions” or “personal health action plans” about specific health/social issues or behaviours.
Primary References: Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, p. 179-211.
Problem Behaviour Theory
B Influence of the School Environment on substance use
Overview
B-1 Influence of the School Social Environment & Regular School Practices
B-2 Influence of the School Physical Environment
School size. Location
B-3 Influence of School Organization & Practices
Student Evaluation/Accreditation/Retention/Recognition Practices
Use of homerooms, teacher-student advisers in secondary schools
Age/groupings for middle & high schools
B-4 Influence of School-related Transitions
Transition Support Programs
Students and their families are regularly confronted with a variety of transitions – changing schools, changing grades, moving between pre-school and kindergarten and from primary school to secondary schools as well as from high school to college or work. Each transition may mean encountering a range of other daily hassles and major life demands. Many of these can interfere with productive school involvement. A comprehensive focus on transitions requires school-wide and classroom-based systems and programmatic approaches designed to (a) enhance successful transitions, (b) prevent transition problems, and (c) use transition periods to reduce alienation and increase positive attitudes toward school and learning. Examples of programs include school-wide and classroom specific activities for welcoming new arrivals (students, their families, staff) and rendering ongoing social support; counseling and articulation strategies to support grade-to-grade and school-to-school transitions and moves to and from special education, college, and post school living and work; and before and after school and inter-session activities to enrich learning and provide recreation in a safe environment. (Adapted from a 2006 policy paper published by the UCLA School Mental Health Project)
Transition from another school/transience between multiple schools due to parent jobs/economy/military
Pre-School to school transition
Transition between primary & secondary school
Transition between sec school and post-sec education
Transition between school and first job/including part time employment while in school
C. Comprehensive Approaches, Coordinated Agency-School Programs, Whole School Strategies to SMH
Overview: Multiple Intervention Programs in School Substance Abuse Prevention (GT)
School-based and school-linked multi-intervention programs that include policies, programs, services and selected organizational or professional practices can promote positive youth development, prevent premature or problematic substance use and other addictive behaviours, address interactions with other health/social issues and help students re-integrate after treatment or manage the impact of addictions. Several interventions can combined into "multi-intervention programs" that can be delivered through schools by educators and by other agencies, addictions, mental health and social service professionals, voluntary and community-based organizations as well as parents, students and volunteers. These interventions can be grouped into several elements, components or domains; including policy, instruction, preventive services, social supports and a healthy physical environment. Comprehensive approaches can link substance abuse/addictions to other health, social and economic issues such as mental health, abuse, traumatic life events, poverty and student dropout prevention among others. Consequently, comprehensive SAP approaches and programs need to be integrated with other similar approaches such as Social and Emotional Learning, Positive Behavior Support, Healthy Schools, Safe & Caring Schools, Wrap-Around Schools and others. These comprehensive approaches also recognize that school-based efforts need to be supported by multi-level actions taken by school boards, health authorities, mental health, addiction, social service and other agencies as well as health, education and other ministries/departments in governments and by national research, monitoring and knowledge management organizations. Coordinated school-agency substance abuse prevention programs delivered by these multiple agencies and schools can focus on substance abuse by building on strengths/assets such as emotional intelligence, social skills, mindfulness and other assets, preventing or managing life challenges that can lead to substance abuse problems and also increase social support by reducing stigma, supporting seamless integration with addictions, youth/ family and other health services, providing specialized programs for students with addictions. Whole school strategies can combine efforts by educators within the school such as policies on substance use/abuse, positive student discipline, alternatives to school suspensions, instructional programs that improve life/social skills, normative beliefs about substance use, factual and practical knowledge about drugs, self-knowledge and more. Student/school activities, parent education/involvement/support, youth-friendly facilities that promote student involvement, peer programs and staff wellness activities.
High quality research studies have reported short-term (1-3 years) changes to student substance use, related knowledge, selected skills, attitudes and behaviours as a result of multiple intervention approaches, coordinated school-agency programs and whole school strategies. These case studies are available in peer reviewed journals, literature reviews and some systematic reviews. Authoritative reports and better practice guidelines have been published by governments, international agencies and mental health advocates. Good quality educational programs, curriculum guides, policy guidelines, school self-assessment tools and training materials are available from several countries. Current challenges related to these multi-intervention programs include implementation and sustainability, coordination between systems, agencies and professionals, maintaining a "whole child", holistic and positive view of substance abuse/addictions while addressing specific problems and conditions. Research challenges include; knowing more about systems readiness, performance and capacity, measurement questions in self-reporting vs direct observations, understanding the benefits to student learning and school effectiveness and how to influence life-time habits and normative beliefs. (Source: International School Health Network)
C-1 SAP Statements, Models & Frameworks
SAP Multi-intervention models, statements
Integrating SAP with Dropout Prevention, Safe & Caring, Inclusion and Healthy School Approaches: Overview
Integrating SAP with SEL Models/MI programs
Integrating SAP with PBS programs
Integrating SAP into Safe & Caring schools models/MI Programs
Integrating SAP into Wrap-around/Full Service Schools Models/MI Programs
Integrating SAP into Healthy Schools Models/MI programs
Integrating MH into Multiculturalism/Diversity/Anti-Racism programs
Integrating SAP into school dropout prevention/learning support programs/approaches (GT)
C-2 Comprehensive Approaches (Multi-intervention plans/approaches/programs addressing multiple issues/not only SAP, multi-level, multi-agency)
Effective comprehensive MI approaches/programs on health/social development, including SA
Effective comprehensive MI approaches/programs on SA
Effective comprehensive MI approaches/programs on aspects of SA
C-3 Coordinated Agency-School Programs (on SAP only)
Effective coordinated agency-school MI approaches/programs on health/social development, including SA
Effective coordinated agency-school MI approaches/programs on SA
Effective coordinated agency-school MI approaches/programs on aspects of SA
C-4 Whole School (Educator only) Strategies on SAP
Effective Whole School MI plans/approaches/programs on health/social development, including SA
Effective Whole School Strategies on SA
Effective whole school strategies on aspects of SA
C-5 Effectiveness of SAP programs on learning, educational achievement
D. Use of Evidence-based and Experienced-tested Individual Interventions in SAP
D-1 Ministry, Agency, School Policy Interventions on SAP
Overview
Health, education, police, social service and mental health ministries, agencies, schools/clinics and their front-line professionals should have clearly defined policies governing how they will work within and with schools to prevent substance abuse. Policy is both an analytical tool, indicating progress being made by an organization toward a broad goal, as well as an action tool that can redirect resources, redefine staff priorities and roles and create new expectations for the organization. Policy interventions, by themselves, can have a positive impact, but it is far more effective to combine policy changes with other elements of a comprehensive approach and coordinated programs in areas such as instruction, health/police/mental health services, social support and physical environment/resources. Policies on substance abuse and other addictions are directly related to a variety of policy issues for schools and other agencies. (eg schools need to consider their policies on topics such as mental health, tobacco use, youth crime, student health services, parent involvement, youth engagement, etc. Police agencies need to consider issues such as community policing, youth engagement, restorative justice, youth criminal procedures etc) School substance abuse policies are established not only by schools but also by other agencies. They should also be established and aligned at several levels within those systems including professional roles/assignments, schools/local clinics, school boards/local agencies/police departments and government ministries. Policy making is not simply adopting a policy on paper. It is a cyclical process that includes consultations, adoption, implementation, evaluation and evolution Each of those phases contains several specific activities that should be undertaken as part of the policy-making pro cess. There are several preconditions for successful policy-making. These include a shared vision, attainable objectives, required skills among staff, incentives, resources and an action plan. There are four cornerstones to school health policy-making including having a policy on policy-making, a policy on Comprehensive School Health, policies on the different elements of a comprehensive approach such as health education to be provided by schools or health/addiction/enforcement services provided by agencies, and polices on several aspects of the health problem. There are several specific aspects of substance abuse that need to be covered in policy. These include:
• Underlying philosophy of the policy (abstinence, harm reduction, deterrence)
• Educational approach, expected outcomes for elementary, junior high and senior students
• Students (conduct, searches, seizure, suspensions, alternatives, assistance, records)
• Staff Conduct (suspensions, assistance)
• Role of guidance counselors
• Informing parents about drug incidents
• Police-school protocol
• Treatment-reintegration with school programs
• Alcohol at adult school functions or rentals
• Gambling at adult school functions or rentals
• Special Needs (FASD, Addicted Parents, Recovering students or staff, students with disabilities)
• Related health/social problems such as tobacco use, delinquency/crime, mental health problems
• Use of outside speakers and resource people
• Working with self-help and advocacy organizations
• Managing controversial or sensitive issues
• Adult (staff, volunteers) behaviours on field trips, student events
There are some key inter-agency policy issues to be considered. For example, ensuring that there are alternatives to simply suspending students from school requires action from social services, police, mental health agencies and police as well as the school system.
Adapted from School, Agency and Ministry Policy Resource published by the Canadian Association for School Health, with support from Health Canada
Whole of Government Policies
Health Sector (Ministries, Health Authorities & Addictions Agencies Policies/ Professional Guidelines re working with schools)
Education Sector (Ministries, School Boards and Education Professional Guidelines re SAP)
Law Sector (Ministries, Youth Courts, Police Service policies re SAP and schools)
Social Service/ Child Protection Sector (Ministry & Agency Policies & Professional Guidelines re SAP and working with schools)
Mental Health Sector (Ministry, MH Agencies, guidelines for MH Professionals)
D-2 Curriculum & Instruction in SAP
Overview
Curriculum Design/ Learning Objectives
Intended Audience: Universal, Targeted, Indicated
Focus on Skills, Normative Beliefs, Facts and Functional Behaviours
Instructional Programs
Teaching Learning Methods/ Classroom Management
Web-based Learning in SAP
Parent Involvement in Instruction
Peer-based Instruction
Awareness & Information Classroom Programs using Celebrities, Survivors or Community or PH Personnel
Teacher Education & Development
Also see our Glossary Term describing Teacher Education and Development for all health/social issues
Student Assessment & Evaluation re SAP
D-3 Addictions and other Services delivered in or linked with schools
Overview
Early Identification, Screening & Referral Services
Brief Counselling Services
Internet-based Support Programs
Student Assistance Programs
Coordinated Case Management & Coordination with Schools
School Support during Treatment, Incarceration, incl. cooperation with family-based programs
School Support for Re-integration
Individual Education Programs (IEP) programs for students with Addictions problems/Alternative Schools
Including SAP referrals and early intervention services in School Clinics in or Clinics closely linked with schools
Crisis Response & Follow-Up Services for Students, Parents, Staff
School-based crisis response/intervention and follow up refers to a range of responses schools can provide in response to a variety of crisis events and subsequent reactions. All school-based and school-linked staff can play an important role in responding to a crisis and ensuring a return to normalcy as soon as possible. Given the variety and complexity of crisis events and reactions, planning and implementing school-based crisis intervention require special expertise (e.g., how to deal with natural disasters as contrasted to dealing with gang violence or suicide, how to plan for crowd management, rumor control, aftermath counseling, prevention). Thus, individuals and subgroups with diverse expertise need to be involved, and all who are involved usually need additional specialized in-service training.. Whatever happens at the school level is shaped by district policy and procedural guidelines. In most instances, the district's administration will have provided the school with detailed guidelines for handling major incidents during the emergency itself and in the immediate aftermath. Such guidelines also should clarify available district support resources (e.g., district crisis teams, medical and counseling services). School districts and the relevant other agencies should address, in the same detail, policies and procedures for what to do in the days and weeks that follow the event as well as a process for collecting data and feedback throughout the events to be used to improve future responses or to prevent future occurrences where feasible. In this glossary term, we briefly describe the crisis response and follow up activities suitable for emergencies derived from or primarily concerned with mental health issues such as suicide or violence. Other terms in this encyclopedia address situations derived from natural disasters or disease outbreaks which also have mental health consequences but are longer term and more widespread in scope. As well, this glossary term is more focused on the crisis related to drug use and related incidents such as delinquency, in-school violence or weapon use rather than the physical safety and emergency management considerations which are addressed in other summaries in this encyclopedia.
As part of overall crisis response planning, the school district and its partner addictions and police service agencies and professionals should consider, in advance of a crisis, (1) how to anticipate potential drug and crime related incidents, (2) how to assess and triage injury, medical and psychological trauma, (3) what types of responses will be made with respect to students, staff, parents, district, community, media (4) what special provisions will be implemented to address language, cultural and other specific community-driven considerations, (5) which school, agency and professional personnel will make the responses, (6) how district and community resources will be used, (7) which personnel will review the adequacy of each response and make appropriate subsequent recommendations to revise the crises response plans and (8) what in-service staff development and training are needed to prepare all relevant staff. Specialized staff should be assigned by the school district, addictions agencies, police services, hospitals and other regional organizations during and immediately following a crisis or incident.
Crisis response procedures should be preceded by a variety of crime, delinquency and drug prevention activities. An American study (Gottfredson et al 2000) found that the majority of school districts had three types of such prevention activities, with several different interventions within each. These included; (1) prevention activities such as providing information to staff, students and parents (90%) , additions or improvements to the curriculum (76%), counselling, social work and psychological services (75%), behaviour modification programs (64%), enriched recreational opportunities (64%), individual attention, mentoring, tutoring (58%), services to families (55%) and staff assistance programs (49%); (2) organizational and environmental changes including re-organization of grades. Classes or schedules (81%), architectural features of the school (76%), use of external personnel in classes (72%), distinctive school cultures for interpersonal exchanges (66%), improved instructional methods (62%), improved classroom organization and management methods (57%), school-based change management plans (57%), improved inter-group relations with the community (57%) and altered school composition (32%); and (3) improved safety and discipline management including revised rules, regulations, laws or enforcement practices (100%), additional security and surveillance measures (55%) and engaging youth in regulating and responding to student conduct (40%).
Anticipation or risk mitigation measures should be based on good monitoring and tracking of individual student behaviours through the use of office referrals, suspensions and expulsions. There are effective, comprehensive programs such as Positive Behavior Support (PBS) which schools can use. However, variations in communities and changes to staffing, budgets and priorities over time can make this monitoring and individualized follow-up challenging. Indeed, another US study of students (Pollack et al, 2008) those who attacked other students in school exhibited concerning behavior prior to the attack in 93% of the incidents, and more significantly, at least one other person (usually friends, peers siblings) had some type of knowledge of the attacker’s plan in 81% of the incidents and more than one person had such knowledge in 59% of the incidents. This finding suggests that staff will not necessarily be sufficiently aware and that students are potentially a very valuable resource for averting incidents. The emergency measures taken by police or school personnel will need to be part of a comprehensive school board-police service agreement or protocol (eg Ontario Model Protocol). However, the existence of protocols is in itself not a guarantee of effective inter-agency cooperation in investigations (Minor et al, 2008). Many of the critical incidents examined in the Secret Service and Education Department study lasted no more than 20 minutes. In fact, 47 percent lasted 15 minutes or less from the beginning of the shooting to the time the attacker was apprehended, surrendered, stopped shooting, left the school or committed suicide; one-quarter were over within five minutes. Given the short duration of most school attacks, it is crucial for schools to have prevention efforts and critical incident response plans in place. According to a 2006 national survey by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 95 percent of school districts had a comprehensive plan to address crisis preparedness, response and recovery. Of these districts, about 82 percent provided funding for training or offered training on the plan to faculty and staff during the two preceding years. As for individual schools, 97 percent had a crisis preparedness, response and recovery plan, and among these schools, 87 percent provided training on the plan to faculty and staff. The aftermath activities following a drug or crime incident in school should include the use of alternatives to school suspensions programs by schools/courts for the offenders and restorative justice for victims and offenders. Additional psychological support and follow up for victims and bystanders are described in the glossary Term and related documents on Mental Health Crisis Response Programs & Follow Up included in this Encyclopedia.
Adapted from the sources cited above and The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the Prevention of School Attacks in the United States), Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education, May 2002., Toward Safe and Orderly Schools— The National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools, National Institute on Justice Responding to a Crisis at School, UCLA School Mental Health Project
Role of Physicians, Clinics, Hospitals re SAP & Schools
Role of School Social Worker, Social Services Agency re SAP & Schools
Role of PH Nurse, PH Programs & Health Authority in SAP & Schools
Role of School Guidance Counsellor, SB Student Services re SAP
Role of Pastoral Care Worker, Local Clergy re SAP
Role of Police Officer, Police Services re SAP
Role of School Psychologists, local psychologists re SAP
Role of School Principal in SAP
Role of Classroom Teachers in SAP service delivery
Role of Trained Peer Helpers in SAP
Role of Parent Volunteers, Adult Mentors in SAP
D-4 Social Support Interventions
Overview
School Climate Programs
Advocates of whole school climate programs suggest that the social, physical and learning environments in the school play a major role in shaping the quality of school life, learning, and the mental health of all who are involved. (School/classroom climate sometimes is referred to as the learning environment, as well as by terms such as atmosphere, ambience, ecology, and milieu.) The advocated ideal is to create an atmosphere that fosters smooth transitions, positive informal encounters, and social interactions; facilitates social support; provides opportunities for ready access to information and for learning how to function effectively in the school culture; and encourages involvement in decision making. Recent research suggests that marginalized students may not benefit from general efforts to improve the social climate in the school and require specific interventions designed to establish or strengthen social attachments (relationships) with positive role model peers, teachers, parent volunteers, coaches and others or through positive behavior support programs. Other elements of a positive social climate in schools include; a caring atmosphere, social support mechanisms for students, staff and parents, an array of options for students to pursue academic, vocational and life goals, meaningful participation of students, staff and parents in school decision-making, transforming classroom instruction and management to maximize intrinsic motivation and reduce student groupings/placement based solely on academic achievement, providing instruction and responding to student problems in a personalized way, using a variety of strategies to address or prevent student behaviour problems as soon as they arise, a healthy, attractive and safe physical environment. (Adapted from a 2006 policy report published by the UCLA School Mental Health Project.)
School Discipline/Conduct Rules & SAP
Anti-stigma programs & campaigns
Anti-harassment, anti-bullying policies, programs & campaigns
Youth/Student Engagement
Youth/Student Empowerment
Youth Facilitator to Prevent SA
Student Advisor
School activities to promote positive youth development and prevent SA
After school programs that promote positive youth development and prevent SA
Student Friendship Programs
Student Leadership/ Advocacy Programs
Peer Helper Programs
Mentoring Programs
Inter-generational activities
Parent Information, Involvement, Education and Support: Overview
Parent Information Activities
Parent Involvement & Volunteer Programs
Parent Education, Training & Support Programs
Working with Community & Self-help Organizations
Working with Local Media
Staff Wellness & Occ. Safety/Health Programs
D-5 Physical Environment & Resources
Overview
Safe & Secure Transportation to school
Adequate lighting
Student friendly places within school
Safe & Secure school grounds
E. Implementation, Operations, Capacity, Sustainability & Systems Change in SAP
Overview
E-1 Evidence-based, Practical & Strategic Implementation/Operations Planning in SAP
Overview: Defining, Measuring, Monitoring High Quality Implementation/Operation of SAP Approaches & Programs
Use of Evidence-based Implementation Planning Models in SAP
Practical Planning: Using normal implementation mechanisms and engaging stakeholders in SAP
Strategic Planning : Local Drivers of Change or Resistance in SAP
E-2 Diffusion of Successful SAP Programs
Overview
Distribution, Dissemination & Diffusion Strategies
Critical Appraisal of the innovation & "fit" with education, health, police and addictions systems & local context
Fidelity Issues in SAP
E-3 Capacity and Capacity Building in SAP
Evidenced-based minimums for staffing, curriculum time, access & service delivery in SAP
Ministry & Inter-ministry policy, leadership & coordination in SAP
Inter-agency policy, coordination in SAP
Assigned staff to coordination in SAP
Formal & Informal mechanisms for cooperation in SAP including: - inter-ministry agreements, - inter-agency agreements, - inter-ministry committees, joint service and budget planning
Knowledge exchange in SAP
Workforce development in SAP including:- teacher education programs, - inter-professional ed programs, - teacher development programs, - special certificates, - police officer development, - nurse, social worker development programs
Monitoring, reporting and program evaluation in SAP including: - monitoring of substance use/abuse status/behaviours, attitudes, - monitoring of student learning about SAP, - monitoring of system/organizational and professional capacity in SAP, - school self-assessments, - school recognition programs, - Indicator development, - survey development
Strategic & joint Management of Emerging & Priority Issues
Explicit planning for Sustainability
E-4 Sustainability
Overview
E-5 Consideration of system characteristics and change in SAP
Overview
Applications of Systems Change Models in SAP
Open Adaptive Systems & SAP
Loosely-coupled systems & SAP
Professional Bureaucratic systems & SAP
Working across multiple systems in SAP
Blueprint for system change in health/addiction systems to support school SAP
Blueprint for system change in police services systems to support school SAP
Blueprint for system change in mental health systems to support school SAP
Blueprint for system change in education systems to support school SAP
F Consideration of Local Community Context
Overview
F-1 Cultural, Linguistic & Faith Communities
F-2 Aboriginal/ Indigenous Communities
F-3 Rural Communities
F-4 Disadvantaged Communities
F-5 Affluent Communities
F-6 Countries, regions affected by war, conflict, disasters
F-7 Low income countries
G. Consideration of the primary roles, professional norms and ideologies and constraints of school systems
G-1 Consideration of Primary Roles, Functions of Schooling
Overview
Primary Role: Accreditation/Sorting & Selecting Role means many students must fail
Primary role; Socialization into mainstream norms, social control
Competition with primary academic & vocational roles
G-2 Consideration of Professional Norms & Ideologies of educators
Norm: All students deserve equal time and attention
Norm: Disruptions in class cannot be tolerated because need for orderly learning
G-3 Consideration of social, economic & political constraints on schools re SAP
Constraint: Parent rights and privacy must be respected
H. Major Research Issues
H-1 Published Knowledge & Research Agendas in SAP
H-2 Research Connecting SAP & Learning
H-3 Cost-effectiveness & cost benefit studies in SAP
H-4 Use of multiple research methods in SAP
H-5 Methodological, Measurement & Technical Issues in SAP Research